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ARCTIC

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File:Arctic (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|Location of the Arctic.
File:Arctica surface.jpg|thumb|Artificially coloured topographical map of the Arctic region.
File:Sunny Skies over the Arctic in Late June 2010.jpg|thumb|[[MODIS image of the same region.]]

The '''Arctic''' (</ref>

Socially and politically, the Arctic region includes the northern territories of the eight Arctic states, although by natural science definitions much of this territory is considered subarctic. The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. In recent years the extent of the sea ice has declined.<ref name="Serreze, Mc; Holland, Mm; Stroeve, J 2007 1533–6"/><ref name="link5"/> Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice,<ref>Christopher Krembs and Jody Deming. [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_krembsdeming.html "Organisms that thrive in Arctic sea ice."] National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. November 18, 2006.</ref> zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants and human societies.

Etymology

The word Arctic comes from the Greek language|Greek ἀρκτικός (''arktikos''), "near the Bear, arctic, northern"<ref>Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315193 "Arktikos."] ''A Greek-English Lexicon''. Perseus Digital Library.</ref> and that from the word ἄρκτος (''arktos''), meaning bear.<ref>Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315199 "Arktos."] ''A Greek-English Lexicon''. Perseus Digital Library.</ref> The name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little Bear", which contains Polaris, the Pole star|Pole Star, also known as the North Star.<ref></ref>

Climate

The Arctic's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow. The Arctic's annual precipitation is low, with most of the area receiving less than . Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Climate change in the Arctic|Arctic shrinkage and Arctic methane release.

Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about </ref>

Biota

Plants

Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as Subshrub|dwarf shrubs, Grass|graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach in height; Cyperaceae|sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the Papaver radicatum|arctic poppy).

Animals

File:Muskus.jpg|thumb|[[Muskox]]
Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic Hare|Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and Reindeer|caribou. They are preyed on by the Arctic Fox|Arctic fox and Arctic Wolf|wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other land animals include wolverines, Stoat|ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include Pinniped|seals, walrus, and several species of cetacean—baleen whales and also narwhals, killer whales and Beluga whale|belugas.

Natural resources

The Arctic includes sizable natural resources (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on the increase.

The Arctic is one of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare reproduction places of the animals that are characteristic to the region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply.

Paleo-history

File:Arctic fossils.jpg|Marine [[fossils in Canadian Arctic|thumb]]
During the Cretaceous, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as ''Chasmosaurus'', ''Hypacrosaurus'', ''Troodon'', and ''Edmontosaurus'' may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when the winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as ''Muttaburrasaurus'' of Australia.

Indigenous population

The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BC. AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the Independence I culture|Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture.<ref name="Hoffecker"></ref>

Dorset/Thule people|Thule culture transition dates around the 9th–10th centuries. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture.<ref>Gibbon, p. 218</ref> Others believe the Thule displaced the Dorset. By 1300, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century. Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, Russia and the United States.<ref></ref>

Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi people|Chukchi, Evenks, Inupiat people|Inupiat, Khanty people|Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets people|Nenets, Sami people|Sami, Yukaghir people|Yukaghir, and Yupik peoples|Yupik, who still refer to themselves as Eskimo.

International cooperation and politics

File:Polar bears near north pole.jpg|thumb|[[Polar bears on the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole. USS Honolulu (SSN-718)|USS ''Honolulu'' pictured.]]
The eight Arctic nations (USA, Canada, Denmark (Greenland & The Faroe Islands), Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations. The Council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.

Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.

Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced perhaps most notably by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.

Territorial claims

No country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean — Russia, Norway, the United States, Canada, Iceland, and Denmark (via Greenland)—are limited to a economic zone around their coasts.

Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to extend its Exclusive Economic Zone|200 nautical mile zone.<ref></ref> Russia (ratified in 1997),<ref name="ratif" /> Canada (ratified in 2003)<ref name="ratif" /> and Denmark (ratified in 2004)<ref name="ratif" /> launched projects to establish claims that certain Arctic sectors should belong to their territories.

On August 2, 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR (submersible)|MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a flag of Russia|Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. The mission was a scientific expedition, but the flag-placing raised concerns of a race for control of the Arctic's vast petroleum resources.<ref>Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek. [http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Aug2007-TheBattleforthenextenergyfrontier-ShamilYenikeyeff-and-TimothyFentonKrysiek.pdf ''The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons''.] Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007.</ref> (See Arktika 2007.)

Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat|Ilulissat, Greenland on May 28, 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration <ref></ref>

Exploration

Since 1937, the whole Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.<ref></ref>

Pollution

File:contamination pathways large.jpg|thumb|Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic
The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people’s health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants, and in some places the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife and people.

Climate change

File:2007 Arctic Sea Ice.jpg|thumb|[[Arctic shrinkage|Arctic sea ice coverage as of 2007 compared to 2005 and also compared to 1979–2000 average]]
[[File:Plot arctic sea ice volume.svg|thumb|The development of Arctic sea ice volume as estimated by measurement corrected numerical simulation shows probability of total sea ice loss in summer for the near future.<ref name="zhangrothrock1"> [http://psc.apl.washington.edu/ArcticSeaiceVolume/IceVolume.php]</ref>]]

The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of global warming, as has become apparent in the melting sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average,<ref name="HassolArctic Climate Impact Assessment2004"></ref>

In September 2008, the extent of the summer Arctic ice cap was at a near-record low, only 9.01 percent greater than the record low in 2007, and 33.6 percent below the average extent of sea ice from 1979 to 2000.<ref name="link5">[http://nsidc.org/sotc/sea_ice.html "Global Sea Ice Extent and Concentration: What sensors on satellites are telling us about sea ice."] National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved May 1, 2009.</ref> According to the University of Bremen, in September 2011 the Arctic ice cap was smaller than ever before recorded since the satellite measurements started in the 1970s.<ref></ref> Arctic ice is declining in area and thinning. Arctic temperatures have risen more than twice as fast as the global average over the past half century. The speed of change has shocked scientists. If current trends continue, a largely ice-free Arctic in the summer is likely within 30 years – up to 40 years earlier than was anticipated by the IPCC last report.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/sep/11/arctic-ice-melting-at-fastest-pace/ Arctic sea ice is melting at its fastest pace in almost 40 years] Guardian 11 September 2011</ref>

As the volume of sea ice until recently could not be measured by remote sensing as easy as its extent, numerical models have been made to estimate the ice thickness field between known points, which then is summed up to yield ice volume. The resulting volume over time – plot reveals a much stronger loss of ice than ice extent studies suggest.<ref name="zhangrothrock1" />

The current Arctic shrinkage is leading to fears of Arctic methane release.<ref> Previous methane release events have been linked to the Permian–Triassic extinction event|great dying, a mass extinction event at the boundary of the Permian and Triassic, and the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, in which temperatures abruptly increased.

Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention as well. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, the shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route.<ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TECH/science/08/29/northwest.passage/ "Will ice melt open fabled Northwest Passage?"] CNN. August 29, 2002.</ref> In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.<ref>Demos, Telis. [http://money.cnn.com/2007/08/07/news/international/arctic_oil.fortune/index.htm?postversion=2007080810 "The great Arctic Circle oil rush."] CNN. August 8, 2007.</ref> These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.<ref name="Canada sovereignty">Shaw, Rob. [http://www.canada.com/victoriatimescolonist/news/story.html?id=497c719f-a5be-4691-86f4-30ec877101a7&k=77 "New patrol ships will reassert northern sovereignty: PM".] Victoria Times Colonist. July 9, 2007.</ref><ref>Halpin, Tony. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article2155477.ece "Russia stakes its claim on North Pole in underwater search for oil".] Times Online. July 28, 2007.</ref><ref></ref>

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's '''''Arctic Report Card'''''<ref>[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/reportcard/ Arctic Report Card]. Arctic.noaa.gov. Retrieved on 2011-10-18.</ref> presents annually updated, peer-reviewed information on recent observations of environmental conditions in the Arctic relative to historical records.

File:Fra Oshaugen.jpg|thumb|Eidsfjord in [[Vesterålen, Norway, situated and a 3 month summer above 10°C<ref>[http://retro.met.no/observasjoner/nordland/normaler_for_kommune_1866.html?kommuner Stokmarknes in Vesterålen 1961–1990 average]. Retro.met.no (2008-01-28). Retrieved on 2011-10-18.</ref>]]

Arctic waters

* Arctic Ocean
* Baffin Bay
* Beaufort Sea
* Barents Sea
* Bering Sea
* Bering Strait
* Chukchi Sea
* Davis Strait
* Denmark Strait
* East Siberian Sea
* Greenland Sea
* Hudson Bay
* Kara Sea
* Laptev Sea
* Nares Strait
* Norwegian Sea

Arctic lands

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 95%"
! Geographic Designation
! National Affiliation
! Designation
|-
| Alaska
| United States
| U.S. state|State
|-
| Aleutian Islands
| United States
| Alaskan Archipelago
|-
| Arkhangelsk Oblast
| Russia
| Federal subjects of Russia|Federal subject
|-
| Canadian Arctic Archipelago
| Canada
| Canadian Archipelago
|-
| Big Diomede|Diomede Island (Big)
| Russia
| Island
|-
| Little Diomede Island|Diomede Island (Little)
| United States
| Island
|-
| Finnmark
| Norway
| Counties of Norway|County
|-
| Franz Josef Land
| Russia
| Federal subjects of Russia|Federal subject archipelago
|-
| Greenland
| Denmark
| Autonomous Constituent country|country
|-
| Grímsey
| Iceland
| Island
|-
| Jan Mayen
| Norway
| Island
|-
| Lapland (Finland)|Lapland
| Finland
| Regions of Finland|Region
|-
| Lapland (Sweden)|Lapland
| Sweden
| Provinces of Sweden|Province
|-
| New Siberian Islands
| Russia
| Archipelago
|-
| Nordland
| Norway
| Counties of Norway|County
|-
| Norrbotten
| Sweden
| Provinces of Sweden|Province
|-
| Northwest Territories
| Canada
| Provinces and territories of Canada|Territory
|-
| Novaya Zemlya
| Russia
| Federal subjects of Russia|Federal subject archipelago
|-
| Nunavik
| Canada
| Northern part of Quebec
|-
| Nunavut
| Canada
| Provinces and territories of Canada|Territory
|-
| Russian Arctic islands
| Russia
| Islands
|-
| Lapland (region)|Sápmi
| Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia
| Fennoscandia region
|-
| Severnaya Zemlya
| Russia
| Federal subjects of Russia|Federal subject archipelago
|-
| Siberia
| Russia
| Region
|-
| Svalbard
| Norway
| Governor of Svalbard archipelago
|-
| Troms
| Norway
| Counties of Norway|County
|-
| Yukon
| Canada
| Provinces and territories of Canada|Territory
|-
| Wrangel Island
| Russia
| Zapovednik (nature reserve)
|}

References

External links

* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov Arctic Report Card]
* [http://www.iarc.uaf.edu International Arctic Research Center]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov Arctic Theme Page] Comprehensive Arctic Resource from NOAA.
* [http://www.unaami.noaa.gov Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection] Viewable interdisciplinary, diverse collection of Arctic variables from different geographic regions and data types.
* [http://www.panda.org/arctic WWF International Arctic Programme] Arctic environment and conservation information
* [http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem] Current state of the Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem. Comprehensive resource on the Bering Sea with viewable oceanographic, atmospheric, climatic, biological and fisheries data with ecosystem relevance, recent trends, essays on key Bering Sea issues, maps, photos, animals and more. From NOAA.

;Maps
* [http://maps.grida.no/arctic Arctic Environmental Atlas] ''Circum-Arctic interactive map, with multiple layers of information''
* [http://www.arctic.io/observations/ Interactive Satellite Map] with daily update (true color/infrared)

;Media
* [http://acdis.illinois.edu/newsarchive/newsitem-VideoGlobalSecurityClimateChangeandtheArctic.html "Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic"] – streaming video of November 2009 symposium at the University of Illinois
* [http://acdis.illinois.edu/newsarchive/newsitem-ImplicationsofanIceFreeArcticforGlobalSecurity.html Implications of an Ice-Free Arctic for Global Security] – November 2009 radio interview with Professor Klaus Dodds (Royal Holloway, University of London)
* [http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/cae/indexe.shtml The Canadian Museum of Civilization – The Story of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913–1918]
* [http://maps.grida.no/go/searchRegion/regionid/geoarctic UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics library] Information resources from the UN Environment programme
* [http://contentdm.ucalgary.ca/cdm4/browse.php?CISOROOT=/aina3 Arctic Institute of North America Digital Library] Over 8000 photographs dating from the late 19th century through the 20th century.
* [http://www.euroarctic.com/ euroarctic.com] News service from the Barents region provided by Norwegian Broadcasting Corp (NRK), Swedish Radio (SR) and STBC Murman.
* [http://www.arcticfocus.com/ arcticfocus.com] Independent News service covering Arctic region with daily updates on environment, Arctic disputes and business
* [http://www.vitalgraphics.net/arctic.cfm Vital Arctic Graphics] ''Overview and case studies of the Arctic environment and the Arctic Indigenous Peoples.''
* [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=artic&lang=En Arctic and Taiga Canadian Atlas]
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/en/arctic-climate-change/index.htm Scientific Facts on Arctic Climate Change]
* [http://www.polartrec.com PolarTREC] ''PolarTREC-Teachers and Researchers Exploring and Collaborating''
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ Arctic Change]: ''Information on the present state of Arctic ecosystems and climate, presented in historical context (from NOAA, updated regularly)''
* [http://www.arcus.org/search/seaiceoutlook/ Monthly Sea Ice Outlook]
* [http://polar.grida.no/ UN Environment Programme Key Polar Centre at UNEP/GRID-Arendal]
* [http://www.arcticatlas.org Arctic Geobotanical Atlas, University of Alaska Fairbanks]
* [http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/ Polar Discovery]
* [http://www.arctic-transform.eu/ Arctic Transform] Transatlantic Policy Options for Supporting Adaptation in the Marine Arctic
* [http://www.arcticstat.org/ ArticStat Circumpolar Database]

Category:Arctic|
Category:Poles
Category:Greek loanwords

ace:Arktik
ang:Norða
ar:أركتيك
az:Arktika
be:Арктыка
be-x-old:Арктыка
bg:Арктика
bs:Arktik
ca:Àrtic
cv:Арктика
cs:Arktida
cy:Yr Arctig
da:Arktis
de:Arktis
et:Arktika
el:Αρκτική
es:Ártico
eo:Arkto
eu:Artiko
fa:شمالگان
fo:Arktis
fr:Arctique
fy:Arktis
gl:Ártico
gan:北極
ko:북극
hy:Արկտիկա
hi:आर्कटिक
hr:Arktik
ig:Arktik
id:Arktik
is:Norðurslóðir
it:Artide
he:האזור הארקטי
kn:ಆರ್ಕ್ಟಿಕ
ka:არქტიკა
kk:Арктика
sw:Aktiki
lv:Arktika
lt:Arktis
hu:Arktisz
mr:आर्क्टिक
ms:Artik
my:အာတိတ်
nl:Arctis
ja:北極
frr:Arktis
no:Arktis
nn:Arktis
pl:Arktyka
pnt:Αρκτικήν
pt:Ártico
ro:Arctica
ru:Арктика
simple:Arctic
sk:Arktída
sl:Arktika
sr:Арктик
sh:Arktik
fi:Arktinen alue
sv:Arktis
tl:Artiko
ta:ஆர்க்டிக்
th:อาร์กติก
to:ʻĀketika
tr:Arktika
tk:Arktika
uk:Арктика
ur:آرکٹک
vi:Vùng Bắc Cực
wo:Goxub Dottub Bëj-gànnaar
yi:ארקטיק
yo:Arctic
zh:北极地区

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